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Error bars represent ... In our statistical analyses of the listeners' responses to deviants, we conducted three planned comparisons separately for each listener group using simultaneous tests for general linear hypotheses with the multcomp package in R (Hothorn et al., 2008). P-values were adjusted using the single-step method. [http://www.selleckchem.com/products/incb28060.html Capmatinib chemical structure] We compared each groups' response to the pooled standard (i.e., responses to the stimuli [idi], [i?i], and [i?i] when they are presented as standards in a block) to the groups' responses to the summary deviant response for each of the three contrasts. As expected for the English listeners, the response to the control contrast [i?i]-[i?i] was larger than the response to the standard stimuli (�� = 21.21, SE = 8.18, z = 2.59, p  by the standards and the allophonic pair [idi]-[i?i] (�� = 6.92, SE = 8.18, z = 0.85, p = 0.75). Unexpectedly, we found no difference between the response to the standard and the response to the English phonemic contrast [http://www.selleckchem.com/products/iox1.html IOX1 mouse] [idi]-[i?i] (�� = 10.02, SE = 8.18, z = 1.22, p = 0.49). Unfortunately, the MMN responses for the Spanish listeners followed none of our predictions. We found a marginal difference between the response to the standard stimuli and the [idi]-[i?i] pair which are phonologically related in the language (�� = 15.23, SE = 6.51, z = 2.34, p = 0.05). We also found no difference between the standards and either the [i?i]-[i?i] control pair (�� = 5.47, SE = 6.51, z = 0.84, p = 0.76) or the phonemic [idi]-[i?i] pair (�� = 7.80, SE = 6.51, z = 1.20, p = 0.51). For the critical learner group, the MMN results followed the pattern predicted according to the hypothesis that learners successfully implemented the phonological knowledge of their second language at an early, pre-attentive stage of processing. A significant difference was observed between the standards and L1 allophonic contrast [idi]-[i?i] (�� = 20.31, SE = 8.19, z = 2.48, p [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenase Oxygenase] phonemic contrast [idi]-[i?i] (�� = 19.62, SE = 8.19, z = 2.40, p = 0.05), and the control contrast [i?i]-[i?i] (�� = 31.24, SE = 8.19, z = 3.82, p