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Previous proposals of louse phylogenies based on morphology have been contentious at times. Next-generation sequencing and genome assembly technologies offer an opportunity to test current phylogenetic hypotheses. Rapid sequencing and efficient gene mapping to the human louse genome will allow for extensive multigene phylogenies to be developed and improve our understanding http://www.selleckchem.com/products/BMS-777607.html of the evolutionary history and classification of lice. Molecular data have provided the first insights into louse primary endosymbiont evolutionary history. Parasitic lice and their primary endosymbionts do not share a completely overlapping evolutionary history, which is largely unique in insect�Cendosymbiont systems. Additionally, Neratinib in vitro parasitic louse primary endosymbionts are among the youngest known insect primary endosymbionts. Whether these endosymbionts are being replaced by new endosymbionts or whether louse endosymbiosis has arisen multiple times independently remains an important evolutionary question. Whether these bacteria are fulfilling precisely the same roles in symbiosis is also an intriguing question. The recent surge in available ��-proteobacteria genomes and advances in next-generation sequencing technologies will bring whole genome sequencing within the time and budget limitations of most laboratories. Whole genome sequences will provide additional markers for phylogenetics and help us to understand the roles of primary endosymbionts in lice by comparative genomics, improved phylogenies, and understanding genome evolution. We would like to thank J. A. Soto-Centeno and M. Ascunce for editing early drafts of this manuscript. We also thank V. S. Smith for reviewing the manuscript. This work was supported RVX-208 in part by grants from the National Science Foundation to D. L. Reed (DEB?717165 and DEB?845392). The authors declare no conflicts of interest. "cent queries into the evolutionary history of louse primary endosymbionts, very few attempts have been made to describe the nutritional role that the primary endosymbiont provides for its louse host, and vice?versa. Past endosymbiont removal experiments, such as that conducted by Puchta [25], may not be possible for many species of lice. Whole genome sequences would provide new insights on which we can build hypotheses of metabolic provisioning via metabolites (and potentially proteins) to both the louse host and primary endosymbiont. Collectively, these two lines of study would provide insights into how distantly related endosymbionts come to inhabit louse mycetomes and act as primary endosymbionts engaged in metabolite provisioning. Ultimately, we will learn whether these disparate bacteria have used similar means to provide for their host. Recent molecular data and increasingly sophisticated phylogenetic analyses are challenging our hypotheses of the evolutionary history of parasitic lice.