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Finally, some studies showed that plants, grown in heavily polluted areas, can express new allergenic proteins or modify the amount of known allergens or their antigenic properties through post-translational modifications (PTMs; [6-11]). Overall, these studies demonstrated a close association between environmental pollution and pollen allergy. However, most of them were laboratory-based and aimed to assess the effects of specific pollutants directly on allergenic proteins or isolated pollen grains, whereas few field investigations have been carried out to compare FARP1 the allergenicity and the allergen patterns of pollen from plants grown in areas characterized by different degrees of pollution. In this study, we report the results of a field experiment aiming to assess the effect of traffic-related pollution on ragweed pollen allergens. It was of particular interest to investigate whether ragweed pollen from plants grown along heavy-traffic roads is more allergenic than ragweed pollen from plants grown in vegetated areas, where trees and shrubs can ameliorate air quality by absorbing gaseous pollutants. The study was carried our within the plain of the Lombardy Region (northern Italy). Sampling areas were selected on the basis of the results of aerobiological investigations of ragweed pollen counts and on the basis of the road network connecting the principal urban centres of the region. Particular attention was given to the west part of the plain where the prevalence of ragweed allergy is very high [12, 13]. Figure?1 shows the twelve selected areas. Seven of these areas were located at selleck chemicals the sides of heavy-traffic roads (within 10?m from the traffic source), two were at the side of low-traffic roads (within 10?m), and the remaining three were represented by vegetated areas located far (at least 500?m) from motor roads and from industrialized and agricultural lands. Vegetated areas were only three because of the high level of anthropization, density of industries and roads of the Po river plain. Mature pollen grains, naturally released from anthers, were collected from ragweed plants during 2010 summer (July�CSeptember). Samples were also collected during 2011 season to confirm 2010 results. Pollen samples were transported to the laboratory where they FXR agonist were immediately analysed to assess the percentage of pollen grains releasing sub-pollen particles (??