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Cephalometry has been used extensively, as it is widely available, comparatively inexpensive and relatively safe albeit with some radiation exposure. However, it is limited by the two-dimensional Cyclopamine nature of the image produced, which precludes more detailed volumetric analyses and limited resolution of soft tissue structures. More detailed craniofacial assessments are possible using three-dimensional imaging modalities. CT scanning provides more detailed cross-sectional images, especially suited in capturing bony and upper airway features. Three-dimensional volumetric reconstructions and analyses can be performed, although at a greater radiation cost and expense than cephalometry. MRI has been used for detailed assessment of upper airway and surrounding soft tissues in OSA research.6 MRI allows three-dimensional reconstruction of specific soft tissues, and although bony resolution is not as good, craniofacial skeletal assessments have been examined using detailed analysis techniques.45,46,73 MRI is also useful for assessing upper selleck screening library airway fat, such as the parapharyngeal fat pads and regional facial fat, which may be relevant to OSA.41 However, in-depth assessments using MRI are limited by cost and availability. Although these techniques are able to comprehensively assess craniofacial morphology in OSA and would be invaluable for assessing craniofacial differences between ethnicities, there are definite limitations in applying them to large-scale and multicentre studies. MRI and CT have feasibility issues regarding cost and availability as well as standardization issues between centres, and CT has the additional consideration of radiation exposure. A recently developed method using photogrammetry for quantitative craniofacial assessment in OSA95 may be a potential solution to the need for a simplified imaging technique for detailing OSA craniofacial BML-190 risk factors. The technique has been used to demonstrate phenotypic differences between patients with OSA and controls across all craniofacial regions, including the face, mandible, maxilla, eyes, nose, head and neck.72 Furthermore, relationships between surface facial measurements and upper airway soft tissue structures suggest that facial dimensions may provide phenotypic information about upper airway soft tissues.73 Surface facial dimensions were found to relate to upper airway soft tissue volumes, particularly tongue volume. A combination of facial measurements, including midface width, was a better indicator of tongue volume (r2?=?0.69, P?
