Insights On How flupentixol May Have An Effect On Most Of Us
, 2014). Though we were able to measure CH503-induced physiological activity from ppk23-expressing flupentixol neurons on the proboscis and the male foreleg, the responses in the foreleg are not likely to be specific to the natural pheromone since behaviorally inert chemical analogs also caused a change in Ca2+ flux. It is unclear as well whether the activity of ppk23 and ppk25-expressing neurons contributes to CH503-mediated courtship avoidance since males continue to respond to the pheromone (albeit more weakly) when expression of either channel is suppressed. Since ppk23 neurons co-localize with fruitless (Thistle et al., 2012; Toda et al., 2012), a master gene that regulates many aspects of courtship behavior (Yamamoto and Koganezawa, 2013), whereas Gr68a neurons do not (Figure 3��figure supplement 6), it is clear that Gr68a and ppk23 expression will also be in distinct populations of neurons. Based on previous observations that ppk23 neurons respond to both attractive and aversive sex pheromones, we speculate that they function as general detectors for a subset of chemosensory cues rather than encode information about valence. Comparison of the CH503 gustatory circuit to circuits for other tastants and pheromones Afferent inputs from Gr-expressing sensory neurons extend to the neuromeres of the TAG and the SEZ in distinct projection patterns (Kwon et al., 2014). Are there distinct loci within the SEZ that differentially process food and pheromonal cues? In the olfactory system of the fly, OSI-906 research buy information from fruit and pheromones appears to segregate into distinct regions of the lateral horn of the protocerebrum (Jefferis et al., 2007) (though some exceptions have been found, see Ronderos et al., 2014 and Grosjean et Lapatinib purchase al., 2011). In the SEZ, the distinctions are less clear. The Gr32a, Gr33a, and Gr39a receptors, which are predicted to detect courtship-inhibitory pheromones, overlap with bitter-sensing neurons in the labellum (Wang et al., 2004; Weiss et al., 2011) and have very similar SEZ projection patterns (Kwon et al., 2014). In addition, no obvious differences in receptor expression at the periphery have been found between males and females. In contrast, Gr68a expression is specialized for male forelegs, appearing in both gustatory and mechanosensory neuron populations. Expression in females is largely restricted to cells located next to chordotonal organs (Ejima and Griffith, 2008). Moreover, the Gr68a neuron projection pattern to the TAG appears unique amongst the gustatory receptors, perhaps reflecting its dual role in mechanosensation and chemical detection (Kwon et al., 2014). Refined analysis of individual afferent processes in the SEZ will allow us to better understand whether the quality and valence of a tastant is encoded at the level of the sensory receptor or transformed within the SEZ and higher order regions.
