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Overall, the results suggest changes in �� level are only sufficient to account for sex differences in ITI signal effects on extinction. In contrast, manipulations of shock cost are only sufficient to simulate sex differences in acquisition rate. Therefore, Selleckchem BIBW2992 changes in both parameters are required to simulate the pattern of avoidance learning observed in SD rats. Experiment 3: Role of the Testing Context Experiment 1 found that the critic module of simulations trained with an ITI signal learned to assign a less negative value to the warning signal and a more negative value to the testing context by the end of acquisition. Thus, in addition to the warning signal, the testing context could be important for the effect of the ITI signal. Both the warning signal and ITI signal are associated with this NVP-BKM120 molecular weight context, providing for an indirect link between them. Thus, if removal of the ITI signal speeds up extinction because of the testing context and its impact on response selection by the actor, then this effect should be eliminated if extinction takes place in a novel context. To test this possibility, we examined avoidance behavior when extinction took place in a new context. That is, the input that represented the testing context in acquisition was set to zero, while a new input served as the context in extinction. Modeling methods Again, male and female simulations were trained with an ITI signal present or absent in acquisition. The ITI signal was never presented during extinction. All conditions received a context shift between acquisition and extinction. Results and discussion A mixed-design ANOVA with within-subjects factor of training session, and between-subjects factors of sex (male or female) and ITI signal condition (present or absent), was performed on the proportion of avoidance responses. The acquisition and extinction phases were analyzed separately. For a complete summary of the statistics, refer to the Supplemental Information 2, Section SWAP70 3. Results are shown in Fig. 8. As expected, acquisition (before the context shift) was similar to that observed in Experiment 1. Unlike the simulations presented in Fig. 4A, but similar to those in Fig. 4B, the interaction between sex and ITI signal condition was not significant. Instead, the ITI signal was associated with faster acquisition, confirmed by a significant main effect of ITI signal condition, F(1, 36) = 16.757, p